Hassan Noorali; Zahra Pishgahifard
Abstract
The global geopolitical order became fluid after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, and we witnessed a shift in dimensions from geostrategy to economic and cultural dimensions in the last decades of the twentieth century. Meanwhile, Wallerstein's theory of geoculture and Huntington's ...
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The global geopolitical order became fluid after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, and we witnessed a shift in dimensions from geostrategy to economic and cultural dimensions in the last decades of the twentieth century. Meanwhile, Wallerstein's theory of geoculture and Huntington's theory of the clash of civilizations did not work out well, so we are witnessing the formation of a "geopolinomics" order in the 21st century that was previously conceptualized by "Demko and Wood" and "kazi". Using their terminology, the authors present a new theory called the "geopolinomical structure of the world system" for the 21st century, which is based on the components of economics, politics and geography. The present article is of the type of fundamental and theoretical research and the information and raw materials of the analysis are obtained by the library method and by using scientific books and articles, as well as valid or reference websites.The results show that in the modern geopolinomical order, a fragile multipolar equilibrium has been formed with the axis of the four powers of the United States, China, Russia and India, and energy and ports, along with corridors and geotransit routes are geopolinomical components. These factors have given rise to the "geographical gravity of power rivalry" in Central Asian-Eurasia as the "ecumene" of the structure.
Mahmood Vasegh; Ahad Mohammadi
Abstract
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The final objective of social sciences is to seek objective truth, so scientists are seeking realism in science, and this is a term that one of its meanings implies the "objective" conception of reality. Thus, the most fundamental problem in methodology for scientists ...
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Extended Abstract
Introduction
The final objective of social sciences is to seek objective truth, so scientists are seeking realism in science, and this is a term that one of its meanings implies the "objective" conception of reality. Thus, the most fundamental problem in methodology for scientists is that what is objectivity? How can one integrate objectivity in the process of knowing the facts, realities and coincidence of these matters together? How can one set aside a biased notion? The most important issue of any type of epistemology and science is to create a balance between objectivity and subjectivity in science. If an objective experiment does not lead to subjective and methodical rules and laws, then science and knowledge will not be formed, and if subjective rules and laws cut out from the objective reality, realism will be lost. In the other words, the central axis of the questions of epistemology is the "value of cognition", and this seeks to show that what is the criterion of identifying "facts" from false and contradictory ideas to reality? According to the above, objectivity and validity in various sciences, including geography, are of fundamental positions, and different geographic schools have taken different positions in this regard, which directly relate to the results of the research. In this paper, we are seeking to find out what are positions of methodology schools in geography in relation to objectivity and validity of geographic propositions? What are conclusions given to these positions? Which position can have a scientific position in geography? In this paper, we have tried to emphasize political geography in various propositions.
Review of Literature
Objectivity, an attribute of thought at the time that this thought is true. When the objectivity of scientific propositions, spoken, it can be applied in three meanings: 1. correspondence with reality; 2. The possibility of universal evaluate and judge; and 3. Free from personal values, presuppositions and beliefs. The scientific method has three stages of Problem-finding, theorizing, and validation. In between, the criteria for validating propositions and statements are correspondence with reality and logical compatibility. The purpose of logical compatibility is reasonableness, harmony, cohesion and consistency, and ultimately the compatibility of propositions and statements with rational and logical principles, is such that it is acceptable to the minds, clear and self-evident. The validation of theories in the field of empirical sciences (such as geography) is posterior, and theories are inductively endorsed with a degree of probability, rather than deductive proof.
Some of the studies that have focused on the problem of "objectivity and validity" include some articles and books such as Biyabanki, M. “At Interpretation of objectivity; look at the position of objectivity of scientific propositions in various schools of philosophy of science” (2012); Dirbaz, A. “Scientific objectivity and religious attitude” (1998); and Shiroudi, M. “Validation of Hermeneutic Methodology in the Humanities and Islamic Sciences” (2013). The books of Dr. Soroush such as (What is Science? What is Philosophy?, Knowledge and Value, A lecture on Philosophy of Science- Society), and works by Karl Popper, such as Realism and the aim of Science and the Book of The Logic Of Scientific Discovery can also be mentioned.
Method
The present research, due to its philosophical and logical nature, is classified under the theoretical and fundamental research. This research is based on a descriptive-analytical (logical) method and the topics and contents of this collection are documentary and library type.
Findings and discussion
In this paper, various schools of positivism, hermeneutics, phenomenology, Frankfurt, postmodern, and post-structuralism were examined in terms of objectivity and validity of geographic propositions, and it was shown that since critical schools finally lead to relativism, they do not endorse objectivity and validity of geographic propositions, and in this respect they face the problems of epistemology. Finally, it was shown that geographic realities and their recognition as well as evaluation and determination of accuracy or inaccuracy of these hypotheses will be possible through realistic and precise research within the hypothetical-deductive method and rational-empirical approach.
Conclusion
According to the results of this paper, the concept of objectivity in geography can be considered from three perspectives: 1. Although geography is one of the validity sciences and geographic concepts have a valid and abstract position, the above-mentioned phenomena and concepts are objective and realistic out of mind, and phenomena such as vegetation of gardens, roads, bridges and buildings, farms, villages, cities and other geographic phenomena of the same valid nature are objective and real phenomenon. 2. The other meaning of objectivity of geography as an empirical science is that geographic research is a general and universal, and the study of geographic phenomena, hypotheses, and theories is not considered to be monopolistic or individual but is available to all researchers. All geographers are able to examine, for example, the relationship between the Earth's rotation and transition around the sun, with the advent of the night and day, and the various seasons, and / or the possibility of examining the relationship between the geographical location of each area and its climatic conditions, causes of various geographic perspectives, and etc., available to all geographical researchers; and 3. As with other empirical sciences, geographic studies in order to evaluate and judge geographic hypotheses and theories use objective criteria independent of the subjectivity of individuals. These criteria, which are the same criteria for validation in science, are based on a realistic approach that includes the following two principles: a) the principle of correspondence with reality and b) the principle of compatibility with the foundations of reason and logical compatibility. Therefore, briefly, it can be said that the meaning and validity of geographic propositions are as follows: 1. The real and objective nature of geographical phenomena and processes, and propositions about them; 2. Publicity and universality of geographic research; and 3. Determine the value and validity of geographic hypotheses, propositions and theories by adapting them to the criteria of "reality" and "rational compatibility".
Mohsen Khalili
Abstract
Extended Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
After 11thSeptemberand providing background for thoughts of new conservative strategists, doctrine of changing regimes for omitting governments which were against hegemony of the USA, was focused by national security of America. New conservative decision makers with ...
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Extended Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
After 11thSeptemberand providing background for thoughts of new conservative strategists, doctrine of changing regimes for omitting governments which were against hegemony of the USA, was focused by national security of America. New conservative decision makers with focusing on strategy of changing regime omitting contestant and bankrupt governments and creating substitute states were entered to operational field of foreign policy. They did the first step by broad military invasion to Iraq and Afghanistan. The process of codifying new Constitution in Afghanistan was begun in 2004 and in Iraq in 2005. Codifying and writing new Constitution was a content matter, in addition to a formal and figural affair, and it was the most important issue. It showed that chains of occurrences were impressive and they created the new condition which needs to both establishment of a new society on ruins of pervious situation, and a new constitution. The reason was that basically context of Constitution contains bases which formed skeleton of a new structure. In this structure regulations are defined, founded, and codified which help to systematize obedient and ruler union in one hand, and help to transition and administration of regular power in different levels, on the other hand.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Regulating Constitution is defined as founding after rejecting past and pervious political system. This foundation is an intellectual action because wisdom is stipulated as criterion of determining characteristics of new political system. On the other hand, regulating Constitution is a phenomenon towards evolving political and legal process and towards international process of a political tradition or phenomenon which belongs to evolving or propagation of an international political culture. In this process values and bases which originated from historical experiences of a social country (countries) and were formed in the same historical framework, Goe from one country to another and are generalized through this transition. It means a legal system is emerged which other countries then enter the same system in their political culture and they try to organize a new political system based on it. There fore, Constitutions are collection of governing techniques which stabilize governing in relation to each other. Origins of Constitutions are like some interdependent collections of thoughts and devices for handling a modern society. As a result, Constitutions are basically modern phenomena which are rooted in a special political thought.
3. METHODOLOGY
The present study was written with using the ides which was discussed in “space and policy”. In this study, it is talked about geographical indices of Constitutions and impressibility of national institutions from geographical background. The main question is that how the geographical elements and context have been reflected in the text of new Constitutions of Iraq and Afghanistan. In a descriptive research (based on comparative method) the author has tried to answer this question based on the first type of research.
4. DISCUSSION
Geographical bases in Constitution of Iraq
In the introduction of Constitution of Iraq there is a special view about category of land as a geographical integrity. In article one; republic of Iraq is an independent and autonomous country which its governmental system is democratic, federal parliamentre public. In article 2 Islam is formal religion and the main sources of lawgiving. In institute 3, Iraq is seen as a country which has different races and religions. Geographical signs and symbols have been represented in new text of Iraqi Constitution in a natural manner. For example in article 4 Arabic and Kurdish are formal languages of Iraq. In article 65, the president is head of the country and symbol of national unity. In article 107 of new Constitution of Iraq, federal officials are keeper of unity, integration, independence, autonomy, and federal democratic system of Iraq. In article 113, the federal system of Iraq republic consists of a capital, several area and non-centered province, and local offices.
Geographical bases in Afghanistan Constitution
In the first article, geography has presented itself with the statement that Afghanistan is Islamic republic, independent, unite, and inseparable. In the fourth article of Constitution the national autonomy belongs to Afghan nation. In the fifth article defending independence, nationalautono my, integrity and providing security and defense ability are among main duties of the state. In the 8th article, the state must regulate foreign policy of the country based on preserving independence, national profits, integrity, laisser fair, well –neighboring , mutual respect, and equity. In 63th article of Constitution the president before undertaking his position according to special way which is regulated by law......and the capital of Afghanistan is Kabul. In 16th article among languages such as Pashto, Dari, Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluch, Pashe, Noorestani, pamiri, and other languages Pashto and Dari are formal languages.
5. CONCLUSION
Sadam's military and strongly magisterial state was rebellious state which impeded any types of reformation in Iraq. Taliban' unsuccessful state caused war and unrest. It has lost its power of governing the country. Tribal and religious geography in Iraq has conquered federalism on context of Constitution of Iraq which is a geographical field itself. Other geographical backgrounds were borrowed from the same old traditional of writing Constitution. In Afghanistan integrity of geographical diversity has been determined but the state is also integrate and abroad. In Constitution of Iraq the component of land with all his antiquity which returns to Mesopotamia in civilization became the main matter, because in Iraq history and land have proceeded together. In Constitution of Afghanistan, however, the element of geography is not mentioned and what there is about geography in context of constitution is reference to tradition of writing Constitution in which appropriateness of new era has been noticed.
